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As in many other Andean cultural elements, Inkan
Religion is also a product of the evolution developed in this corner of
the world through thousands of years living together with nature. It is
in synthesis a general rule for religion all over the world that when
man can not explain, demonstrate or dominate some phenomena or powers
superior or uncontrollable by himself, he gives to them a supernatural
explanation or origin. Thus, a snake that with just one bite could cause
convulsions and death of a fellow was considered as sacred. A puma (cougar
or mountain lion) that was the most powerful of all the Andean fauna,
uncontrollable even by man was another god. Lightning and thunder that
caused fires and destruction was another deity too. Like that, dozens
and even hundreds of elements from which man was dependent had and still
have a divine character. Religion is defined as the joint of moral
beliefs and values that rule individual and social conduct; likewise,
the practice of rituals that man establishes in order to keep in touch
with all that is divine.
As a consequence of its social division, it seems that in the Inkan
Society there was also a private cosmovision for the nobility and
another for common people. A proof of that is that temples were very
exclusive and used just by the Inka and priests. Therefore the temples
were always protected and closed. Along with beliefs that Inkas tried to
impose in their territory, symbolized by the Inti or Sun God, many pre-Inkan
ones survived showing variations according to the regions with the same
tradition.
In general terms, it was considered that all deities were subordinated
and created by an invisible, eternal and all-mighty God that was named
as Wiraqocha. Though it is argued that the real name of that god is Apu
Kon Titi Wiraqocha or perhaps Illa Teqsi Wiraqocha. Some scholars
believe that probably this same god was identified with other names like
Pachakamaq and Tonapa. The Wiraqocha God was over the three worlds of
the ancient Peruvian cosmovision. Therefore, his dwelling is not found
in the Hanan Pacha or upper world identified with the sidereal space,
neither on the earth's surface or Kay Pacha, nor in the Ukhu Pacha or
lower world identified with the underground. Nevertheless, the Inti or
Sun was the par-excellence deity among Quechuas. It is suggested that it
was the most popular god. The Inka or King was considered the Sapan
Intiq Churin or the "Only Son of the Sun". So it was necessary to confer
importance to the cult of the Sun among the tribes he conquered. This is
the reason why every city or village must infallibly have had temples
dedicated to its cult. It is evident that the most important temple for
this male deity, identified with gold, was the Qorikancha . That same
temple is known by some others as Intikancha or Intiwasi. In the Quechua
religion it was considered that the Moon or Killa was a female deity,
identified with silver, and that the Sun's wife must unfailingly have
had a temple near that of her male partner. The most important priest in
the Inkan Society was the Willaq Uma (Foretelling head) that in normal
conditions was a close relative of the Inka: his brother or uncle.
A Luis E. Valcarcel's study indicates that all the Gods, less Wiraqocha,
dwelled in the "Hanan Pacha" and over there arrived the spirits of dead
noble persons too. From that world came the Inkas as Sun's children. Two
mythical beings established a regular communication between the
different worlds of the pre-Hispanic cosmovision; from the "Ukhu Pacha"
or underground world went over the earthly world or "Kay Pacha" and were
projected through the "Hanan Pacha" or celestial world. These mythical
beings were represented in the form of two snakes: Yakumama (mother
water), that when arriving to the earth's surface was transformed into a
"great river" and passing to the upper world into Illapa (thunder,
lightning and thunderbolt; it was considered to be the god of waters).
The other snake was Sach'amama (mother tree), it had two heads and
walked vertically with slowness and the "appearance of an aged tree";
arriving to the heavenly world it was transformed into a K'uychi
(Rainbow) that was a deity bonded with fertility and fecundity. Besides,
the Earth or Mother Earth known as Pachamama, was a pan-Andean deity
that was and still is the object of a cult all over the Andean
Mountains, the same as in the coast the Qochamama or Mother Sea.
Likewise, the stars occupied a preponderant place in pre-Hispanic
religion. Many stars and constellations, such as the star Ch'aska or
Venus, or the Pleiades constellation had divine characters. Today, the
Andean peasant, follower of Inkan Religion and traditions still uses
some constellations specially in order to foresee the future; according
to the brightness of their stars it is possible to know for example if
next year there will be rains, prosperity, happiness, disasters, etc.
Many chroniclers indicate that Waka or Guaca was a sanctuary or sacred
elements used in order to worship different regional, local or family
gods. The Wakas as shrines were spots where the spirits of the dead
dwelled, and they were served by the Tarpuntay, priests (sorcerers or
wizards for conquistadors) in charge of the religious ceremonies. Those
priests also did the Much'ay or Mocha (in its Spanish form), that is,
giving out resounding kisses in the finger tips and addressing them to
the gods with extended arms. Because in a Waka the "mocha" was done it
is also known as Mochadero. The Wakas in the Qosqo Valley were aligned
in 41 Ceques or Seques, that is, imaginary lines or directions that
departed from the Qorikancha (Sun Temple) following the directions of
the Four Suyos. Polo de Ondegardo made an account of Ceques and Wakas
existing by the middle of the XVI century in which a total of 350
shrines were counted. Nevertheless, many modern scholars suggest that
those were 365 Wakas in this valley, every one dedicated to every of the
year's days; because Inkas knowing how to fix solstices and equinoxes
also knew the solar year of 365 days. Besides, "month" in Quechua is
"killa" that means "moon" as well.
It was considered that the life of a person or a dynasty could emerge
from a river, a mountain, a water fountain, a feline, a bird, etc..
Those were existence sources where a mythical person "appeared" suddenly
and they were named Pakarina; in the popular belief they were many and
kept as divine entities. In the Rivers, Crags (Kjakja), Hills (Orkjo),
etc., dwelled spirits that were invoked with prayers and offerings.
Through the years the Apachetas or Apachejta were formed over the
mountains, on the highest passes of the roads. They were mounds or piles
of stones, chewed coca leaves, old "ushut'as" (sandals), clothing pieces
or some other elements that walking travelers left as grateful regards
for local spirits. Today, the indigenous apacheta has been replaced by
the Cross that is widely used; its christianization had perhaps its
origin in the Lima Province Council in 1567 quoted by Alberto Regal, in
which summary it is read, " It is ordered that every priest in his
district must strive for disappearing and destroying completely those
adoratories that Indians call Apachitas, and if it seems something
decent to him, to place crosses instead of them." Something like
Apachetas were the Thokankas (Thokay: to spit) that were big stones or
steep boulders located also over the hills' edges and in which base
walking travelers relaxed and spat their "akul-iku" (ball of chewed coca
leaves) or some masticated corn.
The embalming art reached a great development in pre-Hispanic Peru. In
Inkan times every dead person was mummified, no matter what his social
status was. The only difference was that mummies of common people were
kept along with their daily life goods and even food in cemeteries
located almost always in spots of difficult access; while that mummies
of noble people were kept in Wakas (Temples). The Mallki (Mummies) were
object of cult and served by their ayllu (organized community or social
group formed by about 100 families) or lineage as if they were living
persons. Even more, in some important festivities there was a great
procession of the mummies of the Inkan State Chiefs and some noblemen
around the Qosqo's Main Square. Another important element in the Inkan
Religion were the Wayke ("brother" in Quechua) which were idols or
representations of noble persons, sculptured in precious metals
generally in natural size. They were revered because they were believed
to be trustees of the person's spirit, as they kept ashes of intestines
of that person in a small box placed by the chest of the idol. It is
necessary to underline that in the Inkan Society precious metals did not
have an economic value but their value was almost exclusively
ceremonial, and for example, conch shells or Mullu (Spondylus sp.) were
even more valuable than gold or silver, because they represented the
Qocha Mama or Mother Sea.
There are references that in the Inkan Society people practiced prayers,
fasts, sexual abstinence in festivities, and there was a concept of sin.
In family homes people had and still today have the Qonopa or Illa known
as Wasiqamayoq or Ullti too, they are family idols or amulets in charge
of protecting the house and bringing good luck and prosperity. They are
sculpted in stone with different shapes and colours, and almost always
with shapes of South-American cameloids having a hole on the back known
as "qocha" (lagoon) where people pour wine, chicha or alcohol during the
ceremony called "haywarisqa" (ceremony of offerings) and where they also
deposit the "k'intu", that is, three coca leaves stuck with llama "untu"
(tallow).
Offerings could consist of different elements such as food, chicha or
Aqha (alcoholic fermented beverage made of maize), llamas, guinea pigs,
etc. Liquid offerings were poured in fountains and channels named
Phaqcha, thus chicha or animal blood was irrigated as a sacrifice.
Occasionally food and some other offerings were given as ashes so that
like this they could get more directly to the gods. Animal sacrifices
were executed in order to foretell the future by means of the study of
their viscera, heart, lungs and other organs. There is a strong
controversy about the practice of human sacrifices in the Inkan Society.
Some Spanish chroniclers, normally Catholic priests, wrote that in some
special circumstances sacrifices of children were practiced (many
scholars believe that this position springs up as an intent willing to
justify the conquest and genocide since imposition of Christianity),
like as the case of the priest Vasco de Contreras y Valverde, whom using
different documents in 1649 asserted that when Wayna Qhapaq died "...
his corpse was brought to this city, where in his funeral four thousand
persons were killed...". On the other hand, Garcilaso Inca de la Vega
states categorically that Inkas had already left that practice of some
pre-Inkan Societies, he wrote, "... they did not have death sacrifices
with human flesh or blood, but rather abominated and prohibited them as
they did cannibalism, if some historian have said otherwise, this was
because their informants deceived them and did not distinguish between
the periods and places when and where such sacrifices of men, women, and
children were made...". In short; today it is known that Quechuas in
certain provinces practiced some human sacrifices; Huaman Poma between
1567 and 1615 wrote that " Capacocha" was the name of children
sacrifices performed twice a year, while that Cieza de Leon wrote that
that was the name for all gifts and offerings for their idols; Pedro
Sarmiento de Gamboa wrote that "Capaccocha" was "the immolation of two
male and two female infants before the idol of Huanacauri...". It is
supposed that such human sacrifices were performed every year in the
most important temples only, no human blood was shed in less venerated
ones. Besides, Johan Reinhard (1992) gives information about remains of
human sacrifices found by the summit of some high mountains. Father Cobo
wrote by 1639 that when sacrificing boys, " They were killed by
strangulation with a cord, or by a blow with a club and then they were
buried, and sometimes they got them drunk before having them killed."
The above mentioned Spanish soldier Pedro Cieza de Leon, called the
"Prince of Chroniclers" by Von Hagen, wrote by 1553 " It is told by many
-perhaps by one of those writers who rushes up his pen- that there were
feast days when they killed a thousand or two thousand children, and
even more Indians. These and other things are the testimony we Spaniards
raise against these Indians, endeavoring by these things we tell of them
to hide our own shortcomings and justify the ill treatment they have
suffered at our hands. I am not saying that they did not make
sacrifices, and that they did not kill men and children at such
sacrifices; but it was not as is told, not by long shot. They did
sacrifice animals and llamas of their flocks, but many fewer human
beings than I had thought, many less, as I shall relate..."
When the Spanish conquest came, multiple events and actions ocurred
tending to radically and abruptly change the religion of a whole
continent, germinated and strengthened in millennia of existence. One of
the superlative aims of the Spanish conquerors was to try to extirpate
totally the "pagan" or "idolatrous" Tawantinsuyo's religion. When the
"Indian Reductions" were established in 1572 by Viceroy Toledo, (for
some people Peru's Solon, great organizer; but tyrannous and perverse
for many others) the Spaniards tried to gather together all the Quechuas
in small villages for four important reasons: in order to control them
efficaciously; in order to gather more easily the tributes that Inkas'
descendants had to pay to the Spanish crown; in order to exploit them
indiscriminately without any payment or wage for their work; and in
order to change the Tawantinsuyo's religion because like that it was
easier to push the Quechuas into the churches. The conquerors began with
the sadly famous " Idolatries Extirpation" by which everything that had
any relationship with Inkan Religion must have been destroyed. Thus, the
most important temples were burned and demolished frequently even to
their foundations. A Peruvian version of the "sorcerers hunt" started,
in which the Andean "Willaq Uma" and "Tarpuntays" were considered not as
priests any more but as sorcerers or wizards, so they were potential or
effective victims of the "Holy Inquisition". In short, every follower or
practitioner of religion different to Catholicism was repressed,
destroyed or eliminated. Nevertheless, in the colonizers' thinking there
were different positions about the Andean Man and his religion. There is
a famous controversy and dispute that arose between the Spanish
missionary and historian Bartolome de las Casas (1474-1568) and the also
Spanish writer Juan Gines de Sepulveda (1490-1573). De las Casas
suggested the imperative necessity of evangelizing the New World people
in concordance with Christian precepts. On the other hand, Gines de
Sepulveda argued that as a matter of fact, the Andean "Indian" had to be
evangelized but before that he had to be humanized. All that
demonstrates that for an important segment of the Spanish colonizers the
Andean Man, creator of one the brightest civilizations in the world, was
one more animal species that had to be humanized.
Although Catholicism arrived to the Andes almost 5 centuries ago, it is
obvious that it did not have enough power or was able to banish
completely the ancestral religion of Peru. Through the centuries there
was and still exists a strong cultural and religious resistance; that is
the reason why many gods, temples and ceremonies of the pre-Hispanic
world have total force. Traditionally, theoretically or officially it is
argued that religion in Peru is Catholicism, but in practice it is
demonstrated that over here two blended religions are practiced, with a
heroic continuity of the native Andean Religion and Culture. As Carmen
Bernand says, " The Inkas are not fossilized people. Their image is
still vivid in the minds of contemporary peasants who are excluded from
all political power. Is this Inca image true to history, or does it
serve a merely allegorical purpose? No matter. It lives in the hearts of
those whom the modern world seems to have forgotten or rejected..."
The present day representatives of Andean Religion are the Paqo who have
different hierarchies of priesthood and are represented by the Kuraq
Tayta, Altomisayoq and Panpamisayoq. They perform different ceremonies
to venerate the Apus (major spirits or deities), the Aukis (minor
deities), the Pachamama (Mother Earth), etc. The Andean priests prepare
the Despachos (dispatches) and Pagos (payments), that is, offerings for
their deities, and they also offer them coca leaves selected among the
best and formed as K'intu. The basic k'intu is made of three leaves; the
largest and longest represents the Apus (male deities), the medium and
rounded the Pachamama (female deity), and the smallest and longer
represents humanity. Those leaves are placed one over the other facing
to just one side and kept between the forefinger and thumb of the right
hand while that the left one protects them. When a more solemn act is
pursued then k'intus of 6 or 9 leaves are prepared. In the Qosqo region
there are some divinities that stand out in importance: that is the case
of Apu Ausangate (spirit of that snowcapped mountain) that is owner or
ruler of cattle in general. The Apu Akhanaku in Paucartambo that rules
over all the Andean tubers. The Apu Sawasiray between Calca and
Paucartambo that is considered ruler of maize. The Apu Salkantay owner
of jungle products. The Apu Willkamayu (Urubamba or Vilcanota river)
that represents the male virility materialized in water that fecundates
the Pachamama, because it drags from the glaciers the fertilizing semen
that gives to the land special properties.
In these last decades the ancestral religion of the Andes is suffering
considerable changes as consequence of commercialization induced by
tourism. Nowadays it is possible to observe the appearance of numerous
"altomisayoq", "panpamisayoq", "paqos" and "healers" that rinse their
mouths with words like "mysticism", "esotericism", etc. Their main aim
is to get money and goods from tourists when offering different
ceremonies and courses of "initiation" or preparation in order to
practice "Andean Priesthood", for almost astronomical amounts of money.
They emulate to the true priests with solid vocation, conviction and
belief, and obviously scoffing at the ancestral Andean Religion.
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